Preschool girls with disabilities may be overlooked

Wendy or Tinkerbell?
Posted on: Sunday, 18 May 2008, 03:00 CDT

The underrepresentation of girls in early special education classesmakes it hard for some to develop socially or academically, and yetlittle special education research has focused on gender, writes JeanneS. Manwaring, a preschool special-educator and University of SouthFlorida doctoral student in special education. Since they are in theminority, preschool girls with disabilities must be encouraged toexpress themselves, she concludes. RedOrbit<(5/18" target=_blank>http://r.smartbrief.com/resp/lfzglErKkIyezDCibGwKOAhU?format=standard>(5/18)

By Manwaring, Joanne S

In a public elementary school in the southeastern United States, aself-contained class of prekindergarten children with disabilities isplaying with PlayDoh. As the children are molding and shaping themodeling compound, the only girl is helping the boys press shapes intotheir Play-Doh. She flutters around the other children showing them howto use the various shapes and encouraging them to roll and press thePlay-Doh. The class comprised 10 boys and 1 girl. When questioned aboutthe disparity in gender because of concern for the lone girl, theteacher commented, "Oh, she does okay, she mothers all the boys." Inanother classroom in the same school district, the single girl in aclass of nine boys struggles to articulate her fantasy role model. Thechildren are talking about their desire to be superheroes, vying foradult attention and pointing to their shuts to help illustrate theirwords describing popular cultural icons such as Superman, Batman, andSpiderman. The boys' exuberant, combined voices dominate the discussionand the adult listeners' attention is drawn to reinforcing the boys' useof language and participation in a discussion. Meanwhile, the littlegirl is overwhelmed by the sheer volume of the boys but persists inattempting to be an active participant in the discussion. Many times shetries to enter the conversation repeating the same phrase of which onlythe word "bell" is understandable. Despite many attempts and promptsfrom the adults for more information, her words are not understood andshe never gets to be a part of the discussion. Later, when the childrenare acting out their favorite superheroes, one of the adults puts allthe clues together to finally comprehend that the little girl wassaying, "Me Tinkerbell." These incidents underscore theunderrepresentation of girls in preschool special educationself-contained classes, leaving them with almost no same gender friendsor peers and thereby limiting them to the single role of motherly"Wendy" as they struggle to identify themselves as "Tinkerbell."Historically, boys have outnumbered girls in special education. Acrossthe developmental age span, the prevalence rates indicate that boys aremore often identified with a disability than girls with a rate of 12%for boys and 8% for girls, respectively. This 4% difference does notaccount for the 33 % difference in enrollment in special education[American Association of University Women, AAUW, 2006). In one largeschool district in the southeastern United States, this disparity inenrollment has resulted in preschool self-contained special educationclasses of predominately male students. The scope of this article is todiscuss the underrepresentation of girls in these special educationclasses and the impact it has on their development. These classes are adistortion of social reality and place girls with disabilities at riskfor appropriate language, peer, and play models. One of the greatestcriticisms of separate, self-contained special education classrooms isthe lack of peer role models, which has prompted a push toward moreinclusive environments for preschoolers. Gallagher (2006], among others,reported increased social interactions by children with disabilitieswhen taught with typical peers in inclusive environments and confirmedthat typical children help to foster social interactions. Therefore, inthese particular self- contained preschool classes, not only areopportunities for typical peer interactions lacking but same gender peerinteraction even between girls with disabilities is not available. Thislack of same gender role models for preschool girls with disabilitiesand the long-term impact on their developing social skills andself-esteem may not be noticed in the education world (Colwell &Lindsey, 2005; Maccoby, 1990). Little research has been conducted on gender and disability and genderroles in self-contained separate special education classes. Recently thedisproportionality of students of color and older girls in specialeducation has come to the attention of the public [Oswald, Best,Coutinho, & Nagle, 2003). Research is beginning to closely examine theidentification of school-age girls with disabilities and the effect ofbeing placed in classrooms that have predominantly boys. In a study onchildren with learning disabilities, the fear and isolation the girlsfelt in separate classrooms and the subsequent effect on theirself-esteem was discussed. Using personal interviews, McGrady, Lerner,and Boscardin (2001) conveyed the girls' sense of isolation anddiscomfort surrounding their being the only girl in a class full ofactive, aggressive boys with varying exceptionalities and behaviors.Popular thought also has it that girls are quieter, more passive, andtheir temperaments suit the sedentary, paper and pencil approach of thepublic schools and therefore do not get identified as having specialneeds. Perhaps in some cases, they do not even get noticed. Or even iftheir needs are identified, they are overwhelmed in a special educationplacement where they are the single girl in a classroom of boys.Furthermore, if older girls are relating the ill effects of theseplacements, then think what may be happening to the preschool- age girlwho may not have the language skills to convey her feelings about thenegative aspects of her placement in special education. The Underrepresentation of Girls The scope of this article is to discuss the impact ofunderrepresentation of girls in separate, self-contained specialeducation classes for preschool children in a large school district inthe southeastern United States. On a regular basis, preschool girlsidentified with special needs are being placed in self- containedclasses where there they may be the only girl. They will not have samegender playmates, language, or readiness models. The girls may beoverlooked in the classroom of 9 or 10 boys or they may adopt theteacher's role because it is the only gender model available to them.This writer contends that girls need same gender peers to develop ageappropriate social, language, and preacademic skills. The articleincludes a simple analysis of the composition of self-containedprekindergarten classes in one school district and the implications ofthe effects of disproportionality of girls within these classrooms basedon research and teacher interviews. Identifying Preschool Children With Special Needs The article focuses on the federally mandated preschool program forchildren ages 3 to 5 with disabilities that is funded through a federalprekindergarten (pre-K) grant and administered by the school district.The children are found eligible through an initial Child Find screeningfollowed by an assessment process conducted by one of the schooldistrict's pre-K assessment teams. These teams consist of apsychologist, a social worker, a speech pathologist, and an occupationaltherapist or physical therapist if necessary. To be eligible to beplaced in the program, a child must have a delay of 2 standarddeviations below average in at least one developmental domain or 1.5standard deviations below average in two domains such as social skills,pre-readiness, independent living skills, motor skills, or behavior. Placement in Self-Contained Classrooms When placing children in self-contained special education classes,several assumptions are made concerning the placement. The primaryassumption is that the placement is in the best interest of the child.Other assumptions include: (a) the class will be taught by a welltrained special educator with an assistant in a small adult to childratio, (b) the curriculum will be developmentally appropriate andmodified to meet individual needs, and (c) the identified special needsof the child will be met in this type of environment. These classesintegrate the Division for Early Childhood's (DEC) and NationalAssociation for the Education of Young Children's [NAEYC) best practiceswith a commercial preschool curriculum. Little thought is given to thecomposition of the class because the focus is on the individual child.This is not necessarily a bad thing, but perhaps a closer look at theclass composition would afford the opportunity to consider the wholechild in terms of the considered placement. Most of the children whoenter these self-contained classrooms are identified at age 3 and havenot had any school experience to determine if their needs could be metin a typical environment. Sometimes a 4- or 5-year-old child is notfunctioning well in a typical preschool or day-care center and afterassessment is found eligible for placement in a special educationclassroom. The school district does not routinely provide instructionfor all preschoolers. The state funds a 3-hour-a-day program for4-year-old children who will be entering kindergarten the following yearthrough private preschools and day cares. The majority of preschoolchildren who are identified with mild to moderate special needs areplaced in self-contained special education classrooms in public schools.With the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals With DisabilitiesEducation Improvement Act [IDEA), there is a concerted effort toincrease more natural placement opportunities, but the lack of fundingand well- trained personnel impact these placements. Composition of theSelf- Contained Class The reality is that the class by definition is entirely composed ofchildren with special needs. The children's needs range from mild tomoderate and may occasionally be severe in these settings. Many of thechildren are nonverbal or have very limited speech in addition to otherdevelopmental delays. There usually are no typical models forpreacademics, language, play, or child-to-child interaction. Typical isdefined as a child without special needs. Sometimes, a teacher will beable to include 1 or 2 children from the community to be "typicals" inthe self-contained classroom. These children generally have a parent whois on the faculty or has some connection to the school. Because ofincreasing numbers of children with disabilities being enrolled thatresults in large class sizes, this practice is disappearing. The schooldistrict is experiencing huge growth and there is not a limit on thenumber of children placed in a special education classroom. The districtdoes address the very large classes but lack of space, personnel, andfunds often leave the classes overcrowded. Some have as many as 16 or 17children with 2 adults. Most of these pre-K classrooms have as many as 8or 9 boys and only 1 or 2 girls. Disproportional Pattern Emerges The self-contained classrooms are in elementary schools across thedistrict. As this writer traveled throughout the district, more and moreclassrooms with ratios of at least 3 boys to 1 girl were noted. Oftenthere were much greater differences. As this pattern emerged, a simplecomparison analysis of the total number of pre-K self-containedclassrooms was done to discover if the initial impression ofdisproportionality was correct. Teachers were interviewed to determineif they were aware of the underrepresentation and to discover if theywere concerned about the effects of it on the girl or girls in theirclassrooms. The District's pre-K classes that serve children who are identified withmore intense needs are not included in this article. These children arecategorically labeled and placed in different separate self-containedclassrooms in regular public schools or center-based schools. Theirnumbers were not available. A future comparison study could prove to beinformative about the identification and representation of thesepopulations in special education. Earlier Study of Disproportionality Interestingly, Hayden-McPeak, Gaskin, and Gaughan (1993) conducted asimilar study that examined gender differences in enrollment, andassessment and educational practices in self- contained pre-K classroomsfor children with disabilities. The study was prompted by concern thatboys were being overidentified, and the researchers wanted to cautionteachers to be sure to teach to the boys* strengths and needs. Over a1-year period they tracked enrollment numbers and determined that boyswere being enrolled at a ratio of 2 boys to 1 girl. They stated thattheir findings match the national enrollment numbers at the time with aratio of 217 boys to 100 girls (Hayden-McPeak et al.). Their researchindicated that teachers pay more attention to boys than girls and theywere more likely to reinforce boys' interactions and initiations even ifthey were being disruptive (Hayden-McPeak et al.). The study concludedwith an admonition to teachers to be more aware of the boys' needs inthe classroom. Teachers were encouraged to have more male- orientedmaterials available and to play more in male-preferred centers such asblocks or cars and trucks. Although certainly there should be concern for overidentification, onecannot help but wonder how the girls fared in those classrooms when theywere outnumbered by 2 to 1, particularly if teachers were beingencouraged to teach to the boys' interests. Furthermore, if these ratioshave remained constant, this has meant girls have been underrepresentedin pre-K self-contained special education classrooms for the last 13years. One has to wonder if their needs have been addressed. That is not to say that teachers have ignored girls but the reality in abusy preschool classroom is that boisterous and more behaviorallychallenging boys will receive more attention. Certainly, this writerrecognizes that there are loud and boisterous girls who can advocate forthemselves but even this type of girl may be overwhelmed in apredominantly male class (Holmes-Lonergan, 2003; Maccoby, 1990). Composition of the Self-Contained Classes in the District Eighty-nine self-contained preschool special education classes forchildren with mild to moderate disabilities were analyzed for thisarticle. These classes were fairly evenly spread out through sevengeographic areas delineated within the district. Although this pre-Kprogram is not available in every elementary school, an effort was madeto place the children in schools closest to their homes or in aneighboring school that does have the program. Some of the schools mayhave two units of this particular special education program. A total of715 children are served in the program. Of the 715 children, 522 areboys and 193 are girls in 75 schools. The ratios throughout the areasvaried from as much as 3:1 to 2:1. For example, in 12 schools, therewere no girls enrolled. In 2 schools, the numbers were even. Girlsoutnumbered boys in three schools but only by one or two. It should be noted that these schools may include one or two typicalchildren in their programs, which may skew the numbers. It is importantto know that these enrollment numbers are not constant because childrenenroll throughout the school year as they reach their third birthday orare otherwise identified with special needs. The only pattern thatclearly emerged is that in most schools boys outnumber girls in theseclassrooms, consistent with the national numbers and with the study of13 years ago. A more detailed analysis would need to be done todetermine if cultural or socioeconomic factors play a role in theenrollment patterns of specific areas in the school district.Nevertheless, the confirmation of the underrepresentation of girls inthe preschool program makes it imperative to examine the effects of thelack of same gender role models for girls on their development ofsocial, language, and play skills. Interviews With Pre-K Teachers Interviews with pre-K special education teachers around the districtindicate their concern over the small number of girls enrolled in theirclasses. The teachers worry that the girls have a tendency to "mother"the boys because it is the only way they know how to interact. If thereare 2 girls in one class, they will play together regularly by choice.If girls from other classrooms visit, the pre-K girls are immediatelydrawn to them and form a single gender play group. They also revealedtheir worry and concern that the single girl in a classroom was lonely.This is not to say that the boys and girls do not play together. They doand their play is fun, engaging, and interactive within the confines ofthe environment. Boys and girls do choose to play together and willchoose a different gendered playmate but the paucity of girls takes awaythe choice to choose a female playmate (Alexander & Mines, 1994). Hence,one also has to wonder about how the lack of girls in the class may havean impact on the boys. It must change the quality, type, and activitylevel of play within the classroom (Alexander & Mines; HaydenMcPeak etal., 1993; Sanders & Harper, 1976). Impact on Play Although there is a growing body of research on play in typicalpreschoolers in typical environments, there is a paucity of research onthe play of children with disabilities in both typical andself-contained environments (Colwell & Lindsey, 2005; Freeman, 2007;Green, Bigler, & Catherwood, 2004; HolmesLonergan, 2003; Ostrov &Keating, 2004). Available research has shown that children preferplaymates of the same gender and usually find same gender playmates morecompatible (Alexander & Hines, 1994; Maccoby, 1990). Each gender alsodisplays preferences for play choices, type of play, and type of toys.Although there are individual differences in preference explained bypersonality type, the preferences run along gender lines. Awareness ofgender differences among children prompts their self-prescribedseparation into same-sex play groups (Hayden- McPeak et al., 1993;Maccoby). The reasons why the genders segregate themselves in play arenot completely understood or known. Some possible explanations includeseparation from boys as a protection, similar interests, similar verbalskills, or adult encouragement for accepted social behavior(HaydenMcPeak et at.J. Maccoby also postulated that girls may becautious of boys' active play styles which feature characteristics ofdominance and competition, and perhaps even more importantly, girls havedifficulty influencing the play scenario when boys are involved. Boyshave been found to be more likely to engage in solitary outdoor fantasyplay whereas girls engage in traditional roles of "house" and "school"(Sanders & Harper, 1976). Sanders and Harper also indicated that boysplay outdoors more, and are encouraged to engage in active, large motor,physically challenging play. Girls on the other hand are encouraged toplay quietly, be more dependent, and are acknowledged and reinforced fortheir communication attempts (HaydenMcPeak et al.). Turner (1991) foundthat certain forms of assertiveness and aggression in boys was not onlytolerated but encouraged. These same types of behavior were discouragedfor girls. These differences in preferences in terms of playmates and play stylesand adult expectations lead to the conclusion that a balance of genderin the classroom is necessary for the optimal development of socialskills (Colwell & Lindsey, 2005). This is particularly true for childrenwith disabilities who may have social skill delays and need every chanceavailable to practice those skills to minimize their delay. Previousresearch provided evidence that girls needed opportunities to choosesame gender playmates, encouragement to engage in rowdy, outdoor play,and to foster assertiveness and independence [Alexander & Mines, 1994J.They also need to be provided opportunities to explore and expandtraditional play roles of "house" and "school" into fantasy play rolesthat encourage greater use of their imaginations (Turner, 1991). Iftheir only knowledge of gender roles is mother or teacher, then girlsare limited as to the type of fantasy play in which they are able toengage. A girl's fantasy role model play may also go unnoticed or shemay be overwhelmed by the volume and number of boys in the classroomlike the girl in the vignette in this article's opening. In addition,her fantasy role model may be unfamiliar or even unknown in the morepopular lexicon of male superheroes in a predominantly male classroom.It is also highly likely that as the single girl, she will not have aleadership role in the classroom and will not determine play choices orplay scenarios during free play time (Colwell & Lindsey;Holmes-Lonergan, 2003; Maccoby, 1990). Although joining the boys'fantasy play is more socially acceptable for girls, the likelihood thatthe boys will follow a girl into girl fantasy play is negligible(Hayden-McPeak et al., 1993; Maccoby). For these very reasons, the lackof girls in a self- contained pre-K special education classroom may bedetrimental to the healthy development of social skills and interactiveplay for girls because of the limited opportunities for same-genderplaymates with similar interests (Colwell & Lindsey). Impact on SocialSkills Currently, there are a number of studies concerning social skilldevelopment. Research has shown that well-developed social skills aregood predictors of academic success (Gallagher & Lambert, 2006; Johnson,Ironsmith, Snow, & Poteat, 2000). Preschool teachers are beingencouraged to teach social skills through direct instruction to preparechildren for kindergarten. In an article on peer relationships inkindergarten and preschool, Johnson et al. stated that good socialskills are a predictor of adjustment in adulthood. In addition, sheclaimed that "children with good social skills who have more friends inpreschool make a better transition into kindergarten. Children's socialbehavior and peer relationships in preschool have a lasting effect ontheir social development as they enter grade school" (p. 209).Therefore, the isolation and limited social opportunities of girls inself-contained preschool special education may impact their socialdevelopment and may impede their academic success in elementary school. Impact on Language As a result of these limited social opportunities, the languagedevelopment of girls may be affected negatively. Male dominatedclassrooms reduce language development for girls because there is alimited number of female conversation partners and topics of interest togirls (Alexander & Hines, 1994). Maccoby (1990) found that boys were notresponsive to girls' verbal requests and that girls avoided interactionswith boys because of their nonresponsiveness. A single girl in a classof 9 or 10 boys has few opportunities to practice interactive languageskills. If similar play interests are valued by children of bothgenders, then similar verbal skills also can play a weight inestablishing and maintaining peer relationships. To promote languageusage, the girls need motivation to talk about topics that interestthem. Ideally, same-gender friends with good verbal skills would enhancethe language development of the girls in self-contained pre-K classes.Many of the children in these classes may be nonverbal. Often most ofthe talking in the room may be done by the adults. Adults prompt forlanguage usage and model language for the students. Although adults maymodel appropriate language, their use of language is not the same as achild's. Children need opportunities to talk with each other independentof adults (Johnson et al., 2000). In addition, boys and girls do notnecessarily use language in the same ways (Hayden-McPeak et al., 1993;Holmes-Lonergan, 2003). Despite limited verbal skills, the girls andboys do talk to each other to some degree in these classrooms. But iftheir skills are limited and their interests dissimilar, the chancesthat language usage will substantially increase and languages skillsimprove are minimal. Impact on Preacademics In a longitudinal study of preschoolers and academic outcomes, Dale,Jenkins, Mills, and Cole (2004) found that there was a significantcorrelation between social skills and academic skills, and that goodpeer relationships help to foster academic motivation. With minimalopportunities for peer relationships, girls will have difficultyestablishing strong enough bonds to mutually motivate each other towardacademic success. In another longitudinal study, Coutinho, Oswald, and Best (2006)followed the long-term outcomes for special education students. Coutinhoet al. found that girls were less likely to earn a high school diploma,more likely to be unemployed or to earn less if working, and more likelyto be a parent. Both Dale et al. (2004) and Coutinho et al, foundsimilar negative outcomes the longer any child was in special education.Dale et al.'s study revealed that extended time in special education canlead to poor academic achievement. These findings are certainly worthconsidering when thinking about preschool girls in self-containedspecial education classes. If long- term studies are beginning to revealnegative outcomes for children in special education, then efforts shouldbe made to limit the negative effects on girls who are underrepresentedin the classroom. Suggestions for Practice Teachers should know and value the individual differences andpreferences of each of their students. They should also be aware ofgender differences and preferences when reflecting on the composition oftheir classes. Teachers can incorporate opportunities that promoteinteraction within and between the genders in the daily schedule. Forexample, they can build on curricular themes and produce various playscenarios in center areas of the classroom. Ideas include setting up aveterinary clinic in the housekeeping area in a theme about animals or abeauty parlor in a theme about community helpers. Promoting and buildingon interactions in these play scenarios will help both boys and girlsfunction more competently in various social settings (Holmes-Lonergan,2003). A study by Green et al. (2004) suggested using stories in whichchildren are engaged in counterstereotypic play to promote cross- genderplay. Teachers could expand on their suggestions by engaging thechildren in cross gender discussions and activities. When facilitatingplay, teachers can create play scenarios that allow for girls to be inleadership roles in balance with the boys. By promoting cross-genderplay, the girls will have increased opportunities to develop theirlanguage and social skills. If girls are overwhelmingly outnumbered intheir classrooms, teachers can look for friendships within the schoolcommunity by collaborating with other teachers who may welcome the samefor their students. Communicating the value of friendship t andsame-gender peer experiences to parents may encourage them to plan playdates in their neighborhoods. Conclusion The underrepresentation of girls in preschool self-contained specialeducation classes results in social isolation and places the girls atrisk for appropriate language, social, academic, and play skills. Theplacement also limits their opportunities to establish same-gender peerrelationships that help to promote prosocial behavior and futureacademic success. Teachers need to be sure to teach to all of thelearning styles in their classrooms and to promote social interactionsbetween both genders to help alleviate the lack of same-genderopportunities for girls. Preschool girls with disabilities need to be encouraged to creativelyexplore their fantasies in an effort to reach their full potential.Given the opportunities to express themselves, not only would"Tinkerbell" take flight and soar through her preschool experience but awhole new generation of female superheroes would capture theimaginations of children everywhere. Research is beginning to closely examine the identification of schoolage girls with disabilities and the effect of being placed in classroomsthat have predominantly boys. On a regular basis, preschool girls identified with special needs arebeing paced in self-contained classes where there they may be the onlygirl. Little thought is given to the composition of the class because thefocus is on the individual child. To promote language usage, the girls need motivation to talk abouttopics that interest them. Teachers can incorporate opportunities that promote interaction withinand between the genders in the daily schedule. References Alexander, G, M., & Hines, M. (1994). Gender labels and play styles:Their relative contributions to children's selection of playmates. ChildDevelopment, 65, 869-879. American Association of University Women. (2006). Women and girls withdisabilities. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.aauw.org/advocacy/issue_advocacy/actionpages/disabilities.cfm Colwell, M. J., & Lindsey. E. W. (2005). Preschool children's pretendand physical play and sex of play partner: Connections to peercompetence. Sex Roles, 52, 497-509. Coutinho, M. J., Oswald, D. P., & Best, A. M. (2006). Differences inoutcomes for female and male students in special education. CareerDevelopment for Exceptional Individuals, 29, 48-59. Dale, P. S.,Jenkins, J. R., Mills, P. E., & Cole, K. N. (2004). When paths diverge:"Errors of prediction" from preschool test scores to later cognitive andacademic measures. Journal of Special Education, 37, 237-248. Freeman, N. K. (2007). Preschoolers' perceptions of gender appropriatetoys and their parents' beliefs about genderized behaviors:Miscommunication, mixed messages or hidden truths? Early ChildhoodEducation Journal, 34, 357-366. Gallagher, J. (2006), Driving change in special education. Baltimore:Brookes. Gallagher, P. A., & Lambert, R. G. (2006). Classroom quality,concentration of children with special needs and child outcomes in HeadStart. Exceptional Children, 73, 31-52. Green, V. A., Bigler, R., & Catherwood, D. (2004). The variability andflexibility of gender-typed toy play: A close look at children'sbehavioral responses to counterstereotypic models. Sex Roles, 51,371-386. Hayden-McPeak, C., Gaskin, S. T., & Gaughan, L. K. (1993, April). Badboys, good girls: A review of the research on gender differences inpreschoolers and a reexamination of assessment, child rearing, andeducational practices. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of theCouncil for Exceptional Children, San Antonio, TX. Holmes-Lonergan, H. A. (2003). Preschool children's collaborativeproblem-solving interactions: The role of gender, pair type and task.Sex Roles, 48, 505-517. Johnson, C., Ironsmith, M., Snow, C. W., & Poteat, G. M. (2000). Peeracceptance and social adjustment in preschool and kindergarten. EarlyChildhood Education Journal, 27, 207-212. Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships. American Psychologist,45, 513-520. McGrady, H., Lerner, J., & Boscardin, M. L. (2001). The educationallives of students with learning disabilities. In P. Rodis, A. Garrod, &M. Boscardin (Eds.), Learning disabilities and life stories (pp.177-193). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Ostrov, J., & Keating. C. F. (2004). Gender differences in preschoolaggression during free play and structured interactions: Anobservational study. Social Development, 13, 255-277. Oswald, D. P., Best, A. M., Coutinho, M. J., & Nagle, H. A. L. (2003).Trends in the special education identification rates of boys and girls:A call for research and change. Exceptionality, 11, 223- 237. Sanders, K. M., & Harper, L. V. (1976). Freeplay fantasy behavior inpreschool children: Relations among gender, age, season and location.Child Development, 47, 1182-1185. Turner, P. J. (1991). Relations between attachment, gender and behaviorwith peers in preschool. Child Development, 62, 1475-1488. Jeanne S. Manwaring (CEC FL Federation), Pre-K Exceptional StudentEducation (ESE) District Resource Teacher, Hillsborough County PublicSchools, Tampa, Florida and Doctoral Student, Department of SpecialEducation, University of South Florida, Please address correspondence toJoanne S. Manwaring, 6507 Seabird Way, Apollo Beach, FL 33572 (e-mail:Joanne.Manwaring@sdhc.k12.fl.us). TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 40, No. 5, pp. 60-65. Copyright 2008 CEC. Copyright Council for Exceptional Children May/Jun 2008 (c) 2008 Teaching Exceptional Children. Provided by ProQuest Informationand Learning. All rights Reserved.Source: Teaching Exceptional Children